Forum Pakistan

This major ancient culture and civilization flourished in *Gandhara, on the territory of present-day Pakistan. Represented by various artistic forms, its architecture and town planning was a blend of the Indian and Hellenistic principles. The culture is typified by the fortified settlements of Sirkap and Sirsukh in *Taxila and Charsadda in Peshawar district. Protected by powerful walls, these ancient towns had a regular layout, comprising dwelling quarters, and special palace and religious zones. Numerous monastery complexes that comprised sanctuaries, stu pas and monks' quarters testify to the predominance of Buddhism. A large number of monasteries were found in Taxila, *Takht-iBahi near Peshawar and Butkara in the *Swat valley. Their architectural forms display Indian influence, although Hellenistic elements can be found in some of the details. They were constructed in the GraecoBactrian and Sako-Parthian periods. Ionic and Corinthianized capitals and profiles can be easily identified. Sculpture and high relief are two important decorative elements of Buddhist architecture where stone was normally used. A unique Gandhara school of sculpture took shape. The Buddhist iconographic canons took their form under the Mahayana influence, starting with an image of Buddha not found in earlier Buddhist art. There is an opinion that he resembled the classical Apollo in nose and head-dress, with pronounced Indian features such as the shape of his face and eyes, and a mole over the nose bridge.

Three canonical positions of the deity were adopted, the seated and meditating Buddha, the walking and preaching Buddha and the Buddha reclining in the Mahaparinirvana position. The Bodhisattva images, though equally canonized, allowed a freer interpretation. An entire typological cycle of Buddhist mythology was formed-saints, monks and secular characters. Graphic stereotypes gradually evolved. The compositions on the subjects of the Jatakas and lives of Gautarna-Buddha that comprise many scenes from everyday life are executed in a freer style. Some of the scenes and images are obviously influenced by the Graeco-Roman tradition such as 'the Athena from Lahore', a Vajrapani that resembles in many details Heracles, 'Cupids with garlands' and Atlases. All of them are, however, dominated by the purely Indian ideal of male and female beauty as well as illustrating Indian regalia, architecture and everyday scenes. The scenes with musicians give an idea of the range of musical instruments used at that time: flute, drum, lute and harp played mainly by women. Ceroplastics or wax moulding was the most important of all minor arts with the range stretching from the traditional figurines of mothergoddess to those also of the Hellenic and later Roman and forms figurines of the local type. Chased and embosed metal work and jewellery included vessels, bangles, necklaces and silver and gold figurines of the Aphrodite, Hypocratus and Silenus type (Taxila).

This was a syncretic culture, taking whatever it regarded as best from each religion, with an Indic substratum permeated by Greek, Sako-Parthian, Bactrian-Kushanic and Roman influences that combined produced a new style. In the first half of the l st millennia AD, during the *Kushan and *Gupta empires, the images and subjects of Gandhara architecture and especially sculpture spread to Nagarahara, Tokharistan and further on to China.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G.A. Pugaclienkova, 'The Art of Gandhara', Moscow, 1972 (in Russian); A. Foucher 'L'art GrecoBouddhique du Gandhara', Vols. 1-4, Paris, 1905-51; G. Ingholt, 'Gandharan Art in Pakistan', New York, 1947; D. Faccenna, 'Butkara. Sculptures from the Sacred Area of Butkara 1', Rome, 1962.